Asia 210 - Modern China: September 2018

Friday, September 21, 2018

The Qing Dynasty

The Origins of the Manchus:

before 1635 no group referred to themselves as Manchus
their ancestry is rooted in the Jurchens who had established their dynasty (Jin) in 1115
they were always war with the Southern Song
sometime there were periods of peace
the Mongols defeated the Jurchens in 1234
the Jurchens returned home to their forests & mountains
some had become farmers along the Liao River area.
the Jurchens had been given honorary title
they also trading privileges in exchange for the recognition of the Ming sovereignty.

Nuhraci:

Nuhraci was born in the area of Jianzhou in 1559
he traded in ginseng,
he traveled to Beijing & received honorary titles for his family & support of the Ming
in 1583 after a disputer among the Jurchen tribes, the Ming army massacred an entire village
the Ming killed more than 2,000 people
they also killed Nurachi’s father
it was understood to be a mistake by the Ming
Nuhraci was given compensation but he was determined to take revenge.

for 30 years through warfare, marriage alliances and threats he united the urchin tribes
he declared himself “khan” of the state of Jin (Later Jin).

The Seven Great Grievances

Nuharci listed all the things he found fault with the Ming court
he listed what they had done to the Jurchen and his family - the Ming ignored all of this.
during 4 decades of unification Nurhaci accomplished three important tasks in areas of
a) the culture
b) the military,
c) the economy
he built a stable social and economic territorial basis
he established the Eight Banner system

he created a written form specifically for the Jurchen language.
the Jurchen language was only recently oral
they had lost the written script of the Jin some time in the 15th century.

The Establishment of the Qing:

from 1618 Nurhaci declared war on the Ming
seven battles wee fought over the Liaodong area
Nurhaci won them all but died in 1626
his son, Hongtaiji continued the military expansion

in 1636 he changed the name of the dynasty to Qing
the new term Manchu was used to describe the new citizens of the new state
this state was mostly Jurchen but it included Mongols, Koreans, Sibes, Daurs, and Chinese
they did not all share the same language & culture
they were united only by the newly emerging leadership.
in 1638, Hongtaiji conquered Korea
internal problems at the Ming court meant that the Great Wall was not defended
in 1644 the Manchus seized the Ming capital
Hongtaiji had died the year before.
they then turned their attention to Central Asia
there they defeated the Zungar Mongols
they brought under their control all of eastern Turkestan
they renamed this area Xinjiang (the new territories)
they also gained influence over Tibet.

The Reign of Kangxi:

Hongtaiji died a year (1643) before the Manchus breached the Great Wall
it was neither Nurhaci nor his son who became the first Qing emperor - it was Shunzhi
Shunzhi was 6 years old when he was installed as emperor
this event was engineered by his mother Xiaozhuang;
Shunzhi lacked leadership qualities

that is why much of the decisions of running the government was taken by Dorgon, his uncle.
Shunzhi is best remembered for his love affair with his half-brother’s consort
after she died he wanted to become a monk but he died the next year as a 24 year old
his second son came to the throne as Kangxi & ruled for 61 years.

as a boy ruler he had 4 regents - the strongest one being Oboi
Kangxi showed patience, political skills, and intelligence
as a 15 year old, he started a series of events that led to Oboi’s arrest & eventual execution.

Consolidation:

in the past China had been conquered by many northern neighbours
the Manchus were the second (after the Mongols) to claim the “Mandate from Heaven”
this gave them the right to rule yet the Manchus made up less than 2% of the population
so Kangxi had to find a way to win over the minds of the Chinese population.
at first China was not completely under the control of the central government
the Three Feudatories controlled large ares
the Three Feudatories were ruled by Shang Kexi, Geng Jinmao, Wu Sangui.
Shang Kexi & Geng Jinmao were Chinese bannermen
they had surrendered to the Manchus in 1633
Wu was a former Ming general
he had contributed to the final entry of the Manchu through the Great Wall
each of them were granted the status of Prince by the Qing court
their sons were married to daughters of Manchu nobles
Wu’s son married Emperor Shunzhi’s sister.
all three had been awarded land & positions that made them independent rulers in tie regions
they took charge of everything under the government - military & civil - and collected taxes;
they kept trade monopolies but always made demands upon Beijing for subsidies
soon the price of keeping their loyalty was too high
Kangxi tried to get Wu to leave his power basis in Yunnan by moving him to Beijing
Wu broke away from the Ming in 1673 & declared his own dynasty.
a year later Geng revolted & two years later Shang joined the rebellion
war erupted between 1673 and 1681; eventually Kangxi prevailed.

after this Kanxi turned his attention to Taiwan
since the early 17th century it was occupied by
a) the native population,
b) European traders
c) Japanese & Chinese pirates.
they were Ming loyalists
Kangxi’s regents were not successful in having them submit.
Kangxi was pre-occupied with the Three Feudatories
after the war he launched a successful attack on Taiwan
Taiwan was then integrated into Chinese territory.

Expansion of Territories:

despite Kangxi’s consolidation efforts, there were threats from the northern frontiers
these threats came especially from the Russians
at that time the Russians were expanding into Siberia.
a fight broke out at Albazin on the Amur River
Kangxi sent troops and it ended up in a peaceful solution - the Treaty of Nerchinsk
this treaty determined the boundaries between both empires
it was the first time China signed a treaty with a foreign power on equal terms
it would also be the last one until recent times.
subsequent treaties would always be termed “unequal treaties”
this would begin with the one after the Opium Wars.
the Zhungars, a west Mongolian tribe
they controlled a large area that now includes Mongolia, Qinghai, and parts of Xinjiang
Kanxi waged war against them to prevent an alliance between them and the Russians.
Kangxi’s war was waged on the Zunghar leader Gadan;
Kangxi actually fought himself
Galdan was defeated & died the next year (1697).
other leaders emerged & were able to occupy Tibet
Kangxi decided to invade Tibet in 1720.

Kangxi’s forces entered TIbet from two different directions
the new Dalai Lama, chosen by the Qing government was installed,
the territorial expansion finally reached its peak
this was when they secured its frontiers with the Russians, the Mongols, and the Tibetans.

Final Consolidation: The Han Chinese

to appease both the Mongols and Tibetans, the Ming did two things
a) they favoured Tibetan Buddhism
b) they formed marriage alliances with Mongol princes
they also had to win the support of the Han Chinese, especially the scholars
for this the court displayed moral leadership in terms of Confucian values.
they adopted the administrative system of the Ming
the traditional examination system was reinstalled as early as the Shunzhi period
Kangxi started to recruit Chinese scholars & high-ranking officials from the Yangzi River delta
this was the richest area in China and had produced many of China’s finest scholars.
Kangxi brought the Confucian establishment into his administration
he emphasized his dedication to the Confucian value or filial-piety
he did this by his long-term devotion to his grand-mother the Empress Dowager Xiaozhuang.
Kangxi also showed his patronage of Chinese scholarship
he did this by putting together two works:
a) the Kangxi Dictionary
b) the Complete Poems of the Tang Dynasty.
the Han Chinese eased their resentment of the Manchus
they now began to take a favourable view of the Qing.

Christianity at the Court:

Kangxi’s intellectual interest made it possible to have a number of Jesuits serving in his court
these were artists, scientists, and engineers.
Kangxi had a tolerant attitude toward Christianity
cathedrals and churches were allowed to be built in the capital and in provinces.
a dispute between two religious orders - the Dominicans and the Jesuits - took place
it was whether the folk religion or Confucian rites were in conflict with Christian teachings.
Pope Clement XI decided to agree with the Dominicans
this made Kangxi extremely angry
Kangxi decided ban Christian missions in China
but he did retained the Jesuits at court because of their secular functions.

Succession Issues:

Kangxi did not deal with this issue as well as with other issues.
his 40 consorts produced 20 daughters & 36 sons - 24 of them survived childhood
hence there were many contenders for the throne.
Manchus generally did not name their heirs
succession often fell to a brother or son, not necessarily the eldest.
Kangxi named his 18 month old son as heir apparent in 1697)
years later he realized that his son was not fit to be an emperor
he removed the title of Prince & put him under house arrest
later he reinstated him but after that demoted him.
this resulted in rival factions among the princes
there was deep divisions the court
because of plots, there were arrests and executions.

when Kangxi died, his 4th son inherited the throne
he claimed that Kangxi had named him on his deathbed.

Emperor Yongzheng

Kangxi’s 4th son would reign as Emperor Yongzheng (r. 1723-1735)
there are rumours that he may have forged the will
this was to steal the throne from his brother
after his ascension his brother was ruthlessly treated.

as an emperor Yongzheng was incorruptible, diligent, and competent.
his workload was far greater than his father’s combined work based on correspondences.
Kangxi believed in minimal interference in the workings of the state
Yongzheng was very aggressive in attacking problems & tried rid the empire of all corruption.

The Qianlong Emperor:

Yongzheng secretly named Qianlong (1711-1799) as heir apparent
he did this soon after his own succession to the throne
Qianlong seemed to have been Kangxi’s favourite grandson
this seemed to have supported the legitimacy of the inheritance.

Qianlong became emperor with very little resistance
he stated he would not reign longer than Kangxi (61 years)
if he lived longer he would abdicate as a gesture of filial piety.
he did live to the age of 89 & was reluctant to hand over the reign to his son
though he did abdicate but continued rule behind the scenes until his death.

Military Campaigns:

his greatest achievements were a series of wars he fought
they were known as the Ten Perfect Campaigns;
they were fought to suppress rebellions
a) those in Taiwan
b) the Yinchuan Tibetans in western Sichuan
he did this to extend & secure borders on the northwest & southwest.
the most significant campaigns were against the Zunghar Mongols (1755-1757)
his father and grandfather had previously waged battles against them
but all they accomplished was temporary peace
the Zunghars always brought new challenges.

Yongzheng, however, defeated the Zunghars once and for all
he did secure the northern and western borders & reduced Mongol influence in Tibet
much of the Zunghar territories became part of Xinjiang.
the next campaign (1758-1759) was waged against the Turkish-speaking Islamic population
these were the ancestors of the modern Uighurs .
in 1764 he stationed a garrison of troops from central Manchuria to defend his new frontiers
these troops wee the ancestors of the Sibe
they still live in there today (they speak a language close to Manchu)
this is the area included into the Qing empire.
the campaign against the Gurkhas in Nepal was done to get rid of external influence in Tibet
Nepal was emerging state supported by Britain through the East India Company
they invaded Tibet in 1788.
in 1790 Qianlong sent troops to the area
the war ended with the victory of the Qing in 1793)

Support of Chinese Learning:

Qianlong portrayed himself in different ways to different ethnic groups
to the Tibetans he presented himself as a reincarnation of Manjusri,
he was one of the most important bodhisattvas of Tibetan Buddhism.
to the Chinese he was a scholar & patron of Chinese learning & art
the Complete Library of Four Treasures was his most outstanding cultural achievement
it was also the largest single publishing project in Chinese history.
it was started in 1772 and took 20 years to complete
the four treasures represent the major categories of traditional Chinese knowledge:
a) classics,
b) history,
c) philosophy,
d) literature.

a total of 13, 254 books were collected
it involved thousands of scholars
4 million pages were transcribed by copyists.

there was a hidden agenda to all of this
it enabled Qianlong to carry out a nation-wide campaign of censorship (lasted until 1788)
all the books collected were examined
those with sensitive or offensive anti-Manchu sentiments had to be handed over at court
even books selected for the Four Treasures had to be processed for censorship
sometimes passages had to be altered or deleted.
sometimes authors writing or possessing words or phrases would be charged
members of one’s family could be killed for such crimes.
no one knows for sure why Qianlong did
there is no historical evidence to suggest that his reign’s legitimacy was threatened.

Art Collection

Qianlong was also an art collector
he built a vast imperial collection of different kinds of artifacts
this included jade, ancient bronzes, seals, paintings, calligraphy, and ceramics.

Touring the South:

Qianlong made six tours to Jiangnan, in south China
this served as a political purpose as well as persona

it was part of his strategy for spreading his influence all over China
this would be in these southern area where anti-Manchu sentiments was the strongest.
this was certainly during the early years of the Qing
these tours were quite extravagant.

Republican China (1911-1949)

Introduction

On October 10th 1911, a mutiny headed by the New Army officers broke out at Wuchang

they seized the city and obtained the support of the Hubei provincial assembly

the provincial assembly declared the province independent. from the empire

by December all the provinces of central and southern China had followed suit

a republic was declared

Sun Zhongshan (Sun Yatsen) was invited to become provincial president

the Qing court appealed to Yuan Shikai to come to its support

instead he decided support the republicans to force the emperor to abdicate.

between1912 and 1916, Yuan Shika ruled, first as president and then as emperor

his death in 1916 left a political vacuum

until 1928 the government in Beijing exercised only symbolic authority over the country

real power rested in the hands of the warlords.

during these years several important events took place

a) the May Fourth Movement - the political and cultural movement which climaxed in 1919.

b) the founding of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) in 1921.

c) the reorganization of the Guomindang or Nationalist Party.

d) the Northern Expedition of 1926-8, which led to the nominal reunification of the country.

between 1928 and 1937, the Guomingdang attempted to transform China into a modern state

at the same time it battled the CCP with which it had split in 1927.

in 1931 Japan seized Manchuria

Jian Jieshi (Chiang Kaishek), now leading the Guomindang refused to respond

he preferred to pursue the Communists who set out on the Long March in 1934.

by 1936 Japanese forced Chiang Kaishek to agree to a united front with the Communists

the Japanese were already into north China

in the following year the Sino-Japanese War broke out.

after the initial period of heroic resistance, the Guomindang retreated to Chongqing

the Communists, on the other hand, fought on from their base at Yan'an.

after the defeat of Japan, the Guomindang and the CCP fought a civil war.

it resulted in the Communist victory of 1949.

The Social Background to the Revolution

by the beginning of the 20th century, major changes were taking place in Chinese society.

this was particularly true in the treaty ports where western influence was most apparent.

the traditional elite, the gentry no longer relied on the exam system to justify its position

wealthy gentry families moved into the cities.

they employed members of the lower gentry to manage their rural estates.

although the gentry despised commerce, many engaged in commercial activities.

on occasion they joined with merchants, forming the "merchant-gentry alliance"

the emergence of a new merchant class was due to two factors

a) the opening of China to world trade

b) the emigration of many thousands of Chinese to the Americas and south east Asia.

the class included compradores

they were the agents of Western firms who handled the Chinese side of business.

later the term applied to those who engaged in foreign trade

or, it applied to those who utilized their familiarity with Western business methods

it also included wealthy Overseas Chinese who invested part part of their fortunes in China

the great majority of the new merchant class were owners of small enterprises

thee enterprises were affected by the changing economic environment

to protect their interests they formed chambers of commerce

in 1904 the chambers of commerce were given official recognition.

the late Qing educational and military reforms had also contributed to social change.

the number of modern schools rose from 35,787 with an enrolment of I, 006, 743 pupils

this was in 1907.

it reached 82,272 schools with an enrolment of 2,933,287 in 1912.

these schools were ill-prepared

teachers taught a syllabus which was divorced from Chinese reality

they did more to encourage protest and demands than to consolidate the imperial monarchy.

a small but influential group of students went overseas

many of them went to Japan where they studied a variety of subjects

the main lesson they learned was the importance of nationalism

they received constant reminders of the strength of Japan

they were also reminded of the weakness of their own country.

China had formed regional armies

the status of the military, which by tradition was very low, had begun to rise.

China abolished the traditional military exams and they created the new armies.

after that, a new class of professional soldiers began to appear.

young men were from good families and were sent abroad to study, usually to Japan

they encountered the idea that the army might lead in defending and regenerating the nation.

when they returned to China they became officers in the New Army units.

the most prominent were

a) the Beiyang Army formed by Yuan Shikai in the north

b) the Self-Strengthening Army raised by Zhang Zhidong at Nanjing

before the 1911 revolution, other groups in Chinese society began to play small political roles

the Treaty of Shimonoseki had permitted foreign-owned industries to exist in the treaty ports.

in Shanghai and a few other cities, an industrial proletariat had begun to form

these numbered about 661,000 by 1912.

workers, many of whom were women, were often recruited as contract labour.

this left them entirely dependent on the contractor to negotiate their conditions of work

the conditions were very poor

under these circumstances the first industrial strikes took place

a labour movement began to form

the cities also became the forum for mass political protests

in 1905, a boycott was organized in Shanghai and several other cities

this was to protest against the restriction of Chinese immigration into the United States.

the Chinese government had been forced to apologize over the incident concerning a Japanese ship

this was the Tatsu Maru.

in 1908, street demonstrations took place in Guangzhou and Japanese goods were burned.

among the demonstrators were many women

they urged their supporters to wear rings engraved with the words "National Humiliation"

these signs of change were referred to a "Young China"

Young China was, of course, an urban phenomena

rural China remained, at most, only remotely affected.

The Revolutionary Movement

in the Guomindang version they played a key role in the overthrow of the Manchus.

modern historians have been less convinced of the centrality of the revolutionaries.

this is in the events that led to

a) the fall of the Qing dynasty

b) the collapse of the imperial system.

at most, the revolutionary movement created a revolutionary tradition.

in 1911 it was too frail an instrument to be able to bring about a revolution on its own.

yet the record of the early revolutionaries and their organizations is of interest.

SUN YATSEN

Sun Zhongshan (1866-1925) was the founder of the first revolutionary group.

he was born near Guangzhou and studied in Xianggang where he was baptized.

he lived for a time with his brother in Hawaii before returning to Xianggang to study medicine.

he then became interested in politics.

in 1894 he offered his services to Li Hongzhang

his offer was ignored.

then, he abandoned thought of reform and turned to revolution.

he formed a revolutionary organization in Honolulu

in the following year he was involved in an abortive attempt to captureGuangzhou.

in 1896 he was kidnapped by the Chinese authorities on the streets of London

he would have been smuggled back to China for trial & execution

but he contacted friends, who publicized his situation in the media; they secured his release.

Sun came into contact with Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao

they were the leading Chinese nationalists in exile in Japan

he did not accept their plans for a constitutional monarchy

he did not accept their ties with the gentry reform movement

he preferred to seek funds from Overseas Chinese

he also preferred attempts at uprisings with the help the secret society members.

nationalists have emphasized the contributions Sun Yatsen

this is t the expense of other revolutionary figures.

Student Revolutionaries:

Zou Rong (1885-1905), like other Chinese students living in Japan, became a revolutionary

this was when Russia failed to withdraw troops from Manchuria after the Boxer Uprising

his manifesto, "The Revolutionary Army" was published

it was done in the comparative safety of the International Settlement of Shanghai

the manifesto contained a violent attack on the Manchus

he was imprisoned for issuing inflammatory writings and died in jail at the age of 19.

Qiu Jin (1875-1907) was also a student in Japan

there she took up the cause of women's liberation

this, she believed, would only be achieved in conjunction with China's political liberation.

on her return to China she joined the Zhejiang Restoration Society

she became involved in an attempted revolutionary coup and was executed.

Huang Xing (1874-1916), a more conventional revolutionary, came from Hunan

after studying in Japan, he returned to his home province

there he established the Society for China's Revival.

a feature of this society. was its recognition of the importance of infiltrating the armed forces.

in 1905, Sun Yatsen, supported by Huang Xing, formed the Tongmenghui.

it was the Revolutionary Alliance, in Tokyo.

the alliance brought together a number revolutionary organizations.

they adopted a manifesto written by Sun Yatsen that contained a four-point programme.

a) drive out the Manchus

b) restore China

c) establish a republic

d) equalize land-ownership.

the first revolutionary stage would be a military dictatorship.

this would be followed by a period of one-party government - a political tutelage.

this would eventually be followed by the introduction of democracy.

over the next few years several abortive revolutionary incidents occurred.

in 1906, at Pingliuli (Hnan) the Elder Brother Society attempted an uprising

this was in conjunction with dissident miners and soldiers.

some students from the Revolutionary Alliance took part

the rebels called for the establishment of a republic

or, they wanted the restoration of a Chinese Empire

however, the rebels were no match for well-armed government soldiers.

in 1910, Huang Xing & other revolutionaries organized a mutiny.

this was in the ranks of the Guangzhou New Army.

but the mutiny broke out prematurely and was easily suppressed.

nine months later the Alliance was involved in the Guangzhou. revolt.

this turned into a devastating defeat for the Guangzhou revolutionaries.

The 1911 Revolution

the revolutionary attempts had dramatized the challenge to Manchu rule.

at the start of 1911 there was no expectation that China was on the verge of a revolution.

two incidents were to precipitate a crisis.

this would also expose the weakness of the Manchu dynasty

it would also show the frailty of the imperial system.

Tuesday, September 4, 2018

The Emergence of Modern China

Introduction: Change & Modernization

the modernization of China should be understood in the context of western expansion in the 19th century.
this expansion resulted in a Western-centred world order,
or it can be referred to a a Euro-centric world order.
another term for this is Western imperialism.
this means the imposition of western values on other cultures
non-Western countries began to be transformed by Western activities
these activities were imposed upon non-Western countries
they were forced upon non-Western countries by the West
the activities that are imposed are
a) ideas (democracy, capitalism, science),
b) techniques (geography & mapping, engineering)
c) institutions (Western religion, Western form of Government).
they are imposed either through force or through some other type of pressure
it is believed that these non-Western countries could not survive without this.
today the term Westernization is similar to modernization
it is the West that began to become modern
this began with the emergence of the Enlightenment and the new science.
modernization is the transition of rural agrarian cultures into urban industrial cultures.
it is a transformation from one to the other
this process of transformation requires knowledge and technology
it is this knowledge and technology that creates the process.
for many countries this process or transformation is revolutionary
that is because the traditional ways have been in place for so long
sometimes these changes are disruptive to the country's historical past.
when looking at Japan (20th century) we can see the true impact of modernization
what was burrowed from the West was assimilated and absorbed
it was absorbed into its indigenous system
sometimes, what is implanted into the indigenous system is too alien or different.
this results in total rejection;
so, the attempt to implant a liberal democratic system in China has been unsuccessful.
the traditional way of governing China collapsed in the 20th century
for centuries it was governed by an imperial palace under the ruler, the emperor.
internal decay and external aggression are usually the factors that traditionally brought about the collapse of a dynasty, only to be replaced by another traditional dynasty.
within 70 years of the First Opium Wars (the British-Chinese War of 1839-42), China saw
a) the establishment of a modern republican form of government
b) within 110 years, the present Communist government.
so, we ask: what is the traditional way of governing in China?

Introduction: The Ming Dynasty

China’s last dynasties, the Ming (1368-1644) and the Qing (1644-1911)
these marked a glorious end to the imperial tradition.
they heralded China’s troubled entry into the modern world
although treated as a unit, the two dynasties are fundamentally different.
the Ming Dynasty is seen as a response by the Han people to the experience of foreign rule
they had succeeded the Mongol’s Yuan dynastic rule.
efforts were made by the Ming founder to revive and strengthen traditional values
foreign contacts were discouraged
the Ming government was preoccupied with defence of the northern frontier
this was due to the concern about the possibility of renewed invasion.

Ming China grew to be the wealthiest and most populous society in the world
during the 15th and 16th centuries, private and illegal commerce flourished
this was when foreign demand for Chinese silk and porcelain brought in an influx of silver
this came from the emerging world trading system
as the economy grew, wealthy urban centres developed
in the lower Yangzi region the Ming elite developed a sophisticated and luxurious lifestyle.
 by the 1500s, Jesuit reports in Europe provided great descriptions of Ming China
they saw it as a prosperous and orderly society ruled by scholar-officials,
this was a vision of an alternative kind of polity
it was seized by Western Enlightenment thinkers who wished to transform their own societies.

in the early 17th century, there was government corruption
they also neglected rural problems
this led to widespread insurrections and the overthrow of the Ming emperor
this catastrophe was followed by the entry of Manchu forces from beyond the Great Wall
the Manchus began the occupation of Beijing, where a new dynasty was proclaimed.

Manchu Rule in the Qing Empire:

the Qing Empire was a solution to the problem of an age-old conflict
the conflict was between
a) the materially wealthy agricultural population of China
b) the militarily powerful peoples of the vast Asian heartland.
over the 2nd millennium, the military advantage tipped inexorably to the Inner Asian peoples.
the Ming period was a heroic and successful effort to repel and resist the northern invaders.
but the Qing was the conquest dynasty that solved the problem completely
it united Han China with a large part of Inner Asia.
entering China, the Manchus claimed the Mandate from Heaven
they portrayed themselves as champions of order
they called their new state the Qing (Pure or Uncorrupt)
this was a response to all that was wrong in China
despite their small numbers, the Manchus were able to create a stable order
they were able govern China for more than two and a half centuries.

by studying the history of China, they created institutions to the rule of multiple ethnic groups.
a bi-national state structure was set up
it made use of a dual staffing system - Chinese and Manchu
what enabled the Manchus to recruit talented Chinese officials via the exam system were:
a) patronage of Chinese culture
b) the promotion of Confucian orthodoxy,
c) continuation of the Ming law code
d) the Ming bureaucratic institutions.
Qing emperors patronized local rulers and religious leaders directly.

The End of Imperial China:

during the Qing rule the population doubled to more than 300 million in the 1700s
it rose to 450 million in the 1800s

like their Ming predecessors, the Qing were more oriented toward Inner Asia
they were less inclined toward the sea and maritime affairs
the Manchus were to pay the price for their inattention to international affairs.
by the 1840s, China’s balance of trade was reversed
a series of wars with the Western powers weakened their power
humiliating unequal treaties eroded Qing sovereignty
internally, the dynasty was rocked by domestic rebellions that challenged Qing authority
but the Manchus did manage to survive for several more decades.
by late 19th century, the traditional values & institutions were no longer useful in the modern world
the initial reform efforts were aimed at military modernization in the face of Western presence.
defeat by the Japanese in the 1890s made it clear that more profound changes were needed.
after 1900, a desperate Qing government turned to even more radical measures
such a measure was the ending the traditional examination system & drafting a constitution.
the Qing dynasty was overthrown in 1911
this ended two millennia of imperial rule
it left behind a redefined, multinational China
it occupied more than twice the territory of the Ming dynasty.

The Reconquest:

Zhu Yuanzhang,was the founder of the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644)
he was only the second peasant in all of Chinese history to become emperor
he brought an end to the first period during which all of China was subjected to foreign rule.

by the mid-1300s the Mongol Yuan dynasty (founded in 1279) was torn by
a) internal rivalries,
b) the rise of local rebellions
c) a full-scale civil war.
this was the world into which Zhu Yuanzhang was born, in central Anhui province
he was the youngest son of a peasant family
they we're so poor that two of his older brothers were given up for adoption.
Zhu Yuanzhang was 16 years old (1344) when famine & plague killed his family members.
unable to even afford a burial plot for his parents, he joined a local Buddhist monastery
this is where he learned to read and write and gain a basic knowledge of Buddhist doctrines.
shortage of food compelled him to wander around as a begging monk
this was an experienced that exposed him to the rebellion abroad in the land
he joined an insurgent group that was animated by an ideology
this ideology combined ideas about the Maitreya, the Buddha of the Future, and the Manichean idea of a Prince of Rightness
it was believed that he would appear and deliver the world from its time of trouble
Zhu Yuanzhang rose rapidly to leadership of an armed force
he carved out a territory along the lower reaches of the Yangzi River
he established a regional state at Nanjing
he recruited advisers, and organized a formal government.
after a decade of fighting with rival regimes on all sides, Zhu Yuanzhang emerged victorious,
a) he unified the Chinese heartland,
b) captured the Yuan capital at Beijing
c) he drove the Mongols back into the northern grasslands
he appealed to the people’s expectations of an imminent world transformation
he wanted to cement a long-standing legacy
he gave his new state the name Ming
he took the reign name Hongwu – “vast military power.”

Founding the Ming:

Zhu did not subscribe to the messianic beliefs of many of his followers.
during his rise to power he recruited learned advisers and studied Confucian doctrine
his claiming the Mandate from Heaven was a call for a conservative restoration of order
he condemned the Mongols fro their failure to observe Chinese moral standards
this was in either in their familial relations or their political practices.

he was particularly horrified by the Mongol marriage institutions
for example, a widow might be passed to other members of her husband’s family
Zhu outlawed the many unorthodox cults that had flourished during the time of the civil war,
he promoted orthodox Confucian notions about
a) social hierarchy,
b) filial piety
c) undivided loyalty toward the ruler,

Despotic Ruler:

Emperor Hongwu left an indelible imprint on China
he was energetic, shrewd, pragmatic, and ruthless,
he had a vision of what her wanted to do.
after 30 years of tireless legislation and adjustments, he fashioned an extensive set of institutions that would endure for centuries.
his success did come at a great price.
he held a deep-seated hostility toward many educated scholar-officials
these were the literati who surrounded him,
they were the very people upon whom he depended to carry out his orders.
his style of rule was more authoritarian than his predecessors in the Song or the Yuan.
his previous experience of warfare and political intrigue had left him bitter
he was scarred with paranoia and highly alert to threats, both real and imagined.
as emperor he
a) he had a suspicious nature,
b) he was intolerant of criticism
c) he was impatient
d) he had lethal capacity for anger frequently led to bloody consequences
e) he could easily have you beaten to death.

The Vision of Hongwu:

Hongwu’s vision for Chinese society can be seen from essays and texts he issued to guide
none are more revealing than the Grand Pronouncements or Great Warnings, or New Laws
in these texts, he showed his anger & frustration
litanies of crimes and insubordinations had come to his attention,
seeing limitations to his power, he reached out to the common people
he tried to keep them on his side
he declared local schools be established so sons of commoners could learn to read & write.
students learned the text of the Great Pronouncements and the Ming Code
groups were brought to the capital
this was to compete in reciting what they had learned from these lengthy tomes.

National Reconstruction:

China’s reconstruction in the wake of Mongol rule occupied the first 3 Ming emperors f
this lasted for half a century
the founder Zhu Yuangzhang
a) completed the military pacification and occupation of Yuan territory,
b) organized a comprehensive administrative structure
c) undertook economic recovery measures.
warfare, famine, and disease had reduced the population of north China,
this is what he did:
a) he moved great numbers of people from the south
b) peasant families were given livestock and excused from taxation for a number of years
c) criminals and their families were banished to the north for life
d) soldiers were settled along the frontier in military colonies
e) wealthy families from the lower Yangzi region were moved to Nanjing
at Nanjing they could be watched where they enriched the capital
the new order, that the new Ming founder created, had two fundamental weaknesses
these two became to be relate: geopolitical issues & succession issues.
the new Ming capital at Nanjing was far from the military sensitive northern frontiers
this entailed a dangerous, strategic weakness
it obliged Zhu to entrust his largest military forces to commanders who were far away
because of that they were difficult to supervise
the emperor did give some thought to creating a second capital in the north
this was so that he could maintain tight control over his field commanders
but nothing came of this proposal.
managing imperial offspring was equally dangerous
these were princes that competed for the throne
the solution was to have only the heir apparent – the oldest son – remain in the capital.
other imperial princes were sent to estates in frontier regions
there they could participate in defence & oversee military commanders on Zhu’s’s behalf.
this arrangement appeared to solve both problems.

Civil War & Usurpation:

trouble arose when the heir apparent died before taking the throne.
to maintain a line of succession, his oldest son, Zhu’s grandson, was named heir.
in 1360 this grandson came to the throne at the age of 20,
he was threatened by a number of uncles in princely establishments in strategic areas.
the young emperor, began to slowly remove his uncles from their positions,
he began to strip them of their powers and placing them under surveillance
this provoked the surviving uncle, Zhi Di, the Prince of Yan, stationed at Beijing, to
a) revolt
b) march south under the guise of saving the emperor from the influence of evil underlings
a civil war followed, concluding with the fall of Nanjing to Zhu Di, who installed himself as emperor. He took the name Yongle (“Eternal Happiness”) and ruled between 1402-1424.

A Second Founding - The Yongle Era:

what followed was almost a second founding of a dynasty
in power Yongle proved to be an energetic and able ruler
he mobilized and unleashed enormous forces in a series of actions
these actions transformed the empire in numerous ways

he acted quickly to execute those who remained loyal to his predecessor
they were those who had disappeared and perhaps died during the usurpation
he re-wrote the historical records to erase the rule of his nephew and bolster his own legitimacy.
he made sure the that imperial princes would no longer have military escorts.
he solved the strategic problem by moving the capital to Beijing in the north,
this was a heroic undertaking that entailed the rebuilding of the city
it also required re-opening the Grand Canal
this was to bring provisions from the south.
from Beijing, Yongle was able to directly oversee military affairs along the frontier.
in terms of domestic affairs, Yongle upheld the policies and principles of his father
in the north it was another matter.
in the north he personally led five major military expeditions into Mongolia
he attacked & harassed the Mongol forces.
in the south he sent an army to invade Annam in the Red River delta
he attached it to China as a province.
the most famous of his external initiatives was to send a naval expedition
this was to be sent to to the South Seas and Indian Ocean
it was to be commanded by Zheng He.
this was designed to enhance China’s standing
by attracting many ambassadors from foreign lands, it would cast glory on Yongle himself
in China, it bolstered his claim to ruling legitimacy.
Zhu Di died in Mongolia during the fifth northern campaign
his career of aggressive and expansive rule did not survive hi
many of his initiative were not sustained
Ming power was never again projected into Mongolia
Annam gained its independence three years after Yongle’s death
this was due to strong nationalistic resistance
the extensive maritime expeditions were discontinued.

Beijing - the New Capital:

the capital was rebuilt with certain modifications by the first emperor of the Ming
this was soon after it had been taken away from the Mongols in 1368.
there was much debate at court about where to settle a new capital
it was decided that it would be established south of the Yangzi River at Nanjing
Beijing was renamed Beiping.
Beiping was handed over to the charge of Zhu Di, the emperor’ s fourth son - Prince of Yan.
in 1402 he usurped the throne from his brother Jianwen & fire raged throughout Nanjing

the new emperor, Yongle, started on a project of consolidation and fortifying the city
the city of Beiping was at the heart of his power base,

A New Capital Constructed:

the new emperor’s plans for the relocation of his capital was announced publicly
this was done by his granting it the name Beijing in 1403
this almost came to a stop when in 1421, just a year after the city had been officially accorded the status of principle capital, a fire destroyed a substantial part of the restored and expanded Forbidden City.

there was a debate at court the debate to examine the causes and implications of the disaster
this was when the emperor faced blunt criticism over the cost & inconvenience of the project.
these arguments came too late
Yongle had already quit Nanjing for the last time in 1417,
he responded to his dissenting officials by having one imprisoned and another executed.
there was massive tasks of construction of palaces, walls, gates,
there was also the bureaucratic re-organizations
the re-location of the population was already underway
by 1425, over a million people had decided to transmigrate
this would be into the Northern Metropolitan Region
they decided either on their own volition or at the explicit command of the emperor.
the city was built according to the detailed blueprint of the Yuan city – walled and square
after the death of the emperor Yongle in 1424 the destiny of the city was again threatened
this was when his son and his successor decided that the centre of the empire be returned to Nanjing and Beijing be given the status of “temporary residence” (Xingzai).
within a year, the new emperor died
his successor, the Xuande – born in Beijing - emperor revoked his father’s command.
gradually Nanjing’s claim as the rival city dissipated
its bureaucratic structures were downgraded until 1441
this was when the city’s status as dual capital was removed
it then became known as ”former capital” – Liudu.

Zheng He and His Travels:

in the early 1400s, Ming China sent seven great naval expeditions into the Indian Ocean
some of these expeditions reachedArabia and Africa
this achievement reveals both the Ming’s technological capabilities and political priorities.
the leader of the expeditions was a high-ranking eunuch named Zheng He (1371-1433)
he was born Ma He to a prominent family in Yunnan province in Southwest China
this was ten years before the province was incorporated into the Ming Empire.
his surname Ma was quite a common designation for Muslims
both his grandfather and father were called Hajji
this indicating that they had made the pilgrimage to Mecca
Ma He’s father was killed resisting the Ming conquest of Yunnan in 1381
Ma He was captured and castrated
he was presented to the Ming imperial court as part of the spoils of the war
he was assigned to the service of the Prince of Yan, Zhu Di, the 4th son of the Ming founder.
the fief of the Prince of Yan was in Beijing
it had, until recently, been the capital of the Yuan Dynasty.
the young eunuch proved to be an able servant and gained his master’s trust.
he grew up to be tall and stout,
he displayed the good capacity for military affairs when the Prince of Yan led armed forces along the frontiers

the Prince of Yan revolted and marched on to the capital in Nanjing,
Ma He distinguished himself in the fighting
after the Prince of Yan took the reign name Yongle, Ma He emerged as a trusted lieutenant.
in 1404, he was granted the surname Zheng
he was given the title of Director (taijian)
this implied the head of a eunuch agency in the imperial household
he was a person the emperor, could always trust implicitly’
this was the background that caused Zheng He to be placed in command of the expeditions
he had no naval experience.

The Fleets of Yongle:

at Yongle’s command, a ship-building program was undertaken along the southern coast.
by the summer of 1405, more than 1100 ships had been built or rebuilt as oceangoing crafts.

the vessels were of different sizes.
the largest, called treasure ships (bao chuan), were built in a shipyard outside of Nanjing.
they were 440 feet long and 186 feet wide, the largest wooden ships ever built
besides the treasure ships there were
a) horse ships (370 ft length),
b) supply ships (289 ft. length),
c) billet ships (240 ft. length
d) battleships (180 ft. length) loaded with cannons.

the great sizes & their numbers allowed the fleets to carry large amounts of Chinese goods
these would be for gifts &barter, supplying food, water, &equipment for months at sea.
besides the head commander and his officers there were all kinds of crew
a) navigators,
b) interpreters,
c) medical and religious specialists
d) craftsmen
e) a sizeable military force –foot & cavalry were the passengers on board.
the first voyage in 1405 was staffed by 27,000 men. It had 62 ships and 255 smaller crafts.
the six voyages that would follow later were all similar in size.

The Voyages and Expeditions:

in all there were seven voyages from 1405 to 1433
they usually took two years
this is because the fleet had to wait for the monsoon winds
these winds made it easier to sail south in the winter and north in the summer
all the voyages followed the same basic route.

from the mouth of the Yangzi River, the fleet sailed down the coast
it would stop sat Changle in Fujian province & at Qui Nohn in Champa (now part of Vietnam) ,
then it continued southwards to Sumatra and the Strait of Malacca
from the northern end of Sumatra, the route went
a) westward across open water to Ceylon (Sri Lanka)
b) then around to the major trading centre of Calicut (Kozhikode)
this was on the Malabar Coast of southeaster India
this was as far as the first three voyages went
the next four voyages went from Calicut northwest to Hormuz
this was a great regional trading centre at the mouth of the Persian Gulf in Iran.

beyond Hormuz the last 3 expeditions sent detached squadrons westward
this would be along the southern coast of Arabia to Aden, at the mouth of the Red Sea.
Zheng He and a handful of his subordinates went north from there to visit Mecca
the most distant points reached by ships were as far down as the east coast of Africa,
this area included Mogadishu in Somalia and as far south as Malindi in Kenya.

Military Force:

on several voyages, Zheng He’s forces engaged in combat
on the 1st expedition (1405-1407) the fleet came into conflict with a Chinese pirat
they resided n Palembang in Sumatra
more than 5000 pirates were killed in the fighting;
their leader was captured and taken back to Nanjing and executed.
on the 2nd voyage (1407-1409), the fleet stopped in Java on the return route back to China
there they intervened in local politic
they came into conflict with a local ruler and set up a regional rival before leaving.
during the 3rd voyage (1409 –1411), the king of Ceylon tried to capture the Chinese ships
Zheng He and his men fought hard & captured the king and took him back to Nanjing.
Emperor Yongle set him free and allowed him to return home.
on the 4th voyage (1413-1415), Zheng He’s men fought with a local leader
this was in northern Sumatra
the local leader was captured and taken to Nanjing.
these incidences illustrate that while the Ming government was not interested in acquiring territory overseas, it did not hesitate to use military power to intervene in local affairs and keep order.
the presence of Chinese pirates in Southeast Asia shows that the Ming founder’s ban on overseas trade had not stopped Chinese from going abroad – it really only served to criminalize any of those who decided to do so.

Diplomacy:

the purpose was to show the Chinese wealth & power to the rulers of overseas states.
wherever he went Zheng He handed over gifts of silks and porcelains to the local rulers
these were to be seen as examples of China’s sophistication
they were also tokens of the emperor’s goodwill.
what the Chinese wanted in return was
a) ceremonial tribute,
b) gifts of any distinctive products
c) the formal recognition of the superior status of the Ming emperor.
his 4th voyage which went beyond India to Iran, Arabia, and Africa, was notably successful
it brought back tribute and envoys from 19 countries.

Chinese records show that He’s voyages reached 30 countries from Southeast Asia to Africa.
some were sizeable kingdoms, for example Champa, Cambodia, Thailand, & Bengal
most areas were smaller island or coastal trading communities, some too small to identify.
by the 1420s, the voyages served their purpose in legitimizing Yongle’s rule
by then the court was moved to a new capital at Beijing.
after a 6th voyage (1421-1422), the emperor ordered that the trips be temporary suspended.
Emperor Yongle never again returned to Nanjing and died while on a campaign in Mongolia.
his son and successor listened to advisers at the imperial court
they opposed further voyages on account of the great expense
Zheng He was assigned to be a garrison commander of the now auxiliary capital at Nanjing.
he was called back to action, one more time,
this was when the next emperor, Yongle’s grandson, ordered a seventh voyage (1431-1433).
after that the voyages ended for good
Chinese attention then turned itself to the northern border.

The Director of the Three Treasures:

Zheng He’s voyages showed the complexities of religious life in the Ming dynasty.
he came from a Muslim family, and he may have visited Mecca,
but Zheng He was a professed Buddhist
he is often referred to as the San Bao Taijuan – the Director of the three Treasures.
the three treasures are the “three jewels” of Buddhism:
a) the Buddha,
b) the Dharma or law
c) the Sangha, or monastic community.
Zheng He’s religious life is seen from the inscriptions on stone steles that he had erected
these were done at various places and times
in 1405, he asked the Minister of Rites to write an epitaph for his father’s grave
in 1411, he went to his hometown in Yunnan to make an offering in person.
although he was a eunuch in the imperial court, he still honoured his father
this was as Confucianism would have a filial son do
at the start of his voyage &upon his return, ,Zheng He always made offerings
these were at the temples of the Celestial Empress, Tian Ho
it was to her that he gave credit for his ongoing safety at sea
as a modern man he embraced a number of religions that were prominent during his time.
in 1911 a stele erected by Zheng He was discovered in Ceylon (Sri Lanka)
the inscription is in Chinese, Tamil, and Persian
it details the things that he offered to the temple:
a) gold,
b) silver
c) silk,
d) incense burners,
e) lacquer utensils & other symbolic objects.
the Chinese text there records Emperor Yongle’s reverence for Buddhism
the Tamil inscription tells of his respect for the Hindu god of the Tamils
the Persian inscription records that the offerings were made to Allah, the God of Islam.

Ming Law & Government:

Ming China had legal & governmental institutions reach their highest peaks.
the Ming founder Zhu Yuanzhang was a tireless and inventive legislator
he codified rules governing many aspects of Ming society
this included aspects from the imperial clan down to rural village community.
the emperor’s most enduring achievement was the Great Ming Code of 1397.
the Code had 460 articles
they were organized by sections on
a) personnel,
b) revenue,
c) rites,
d) military affairs,
e) penal affairs
f) public works.
it was a penal code that specified how the traditional five punishments should be applied
the five traditional punishment were
a) beating with a light stick,
b) beating with a heavy stick,
c) penal servitude,
d) life exile,
e) death by strangulation or decapitation.
the Code was designed to uphold an idealized social harmony
the punishments were harshest for those who transgressed against their superiors.
specific consideration was given to
a)the young,
b) the elderly,
c) women,
d) persons with disabilities.
punishment was generally lighter for those who voluntarily confessed
in many cases, payment of fines could reduce or eliminate punishment.
to inhibit any social change, Zhu commanded that the Code could never be altered.

Enforcing the Code:

the Ming dynasty did not have specialized judicial institution
the Code was enforced by district magistrates
the magistrates functioned as judges whenever legal cases arose
they were assisted by the local staff of constables, bailiffs, jailers, and coroners
they handled prisoners and gathered information.
there were no lawyers
some literate persons studied the codes and assisted in offering pleas before the magistrate.
guilt was assumed in most cases where the crime was alleged
torture was often applied to extract confessions, which confirmed the charges.
civil disputes, involving property, were meant to be resolved by arbitration
this was done under the supervision of community and lineage elders
despite this, stubborn disagreements were often taken to the magistrate for resolution
there was limited appeal to higher levels of government
all death sentences were reviewed at the capital
pardons and reductions in punishment were constantly routine features of the legal system..

Civil Administration:

the Ming gov’t was the largest & most rationally organized administrative system in the world.
it was divided into parallel military and civil hierarchies.
civil officials were recruited through the triennial examination system
military officials were recruited through a combination of examinations and heredity.
there were nine official ranks
each were divided into sub-ranks
they were distinguished by brocaded squares worn on their uniforms
birds were for civil officials and animals for military officials.

the number of officials holding civil ranks rose to about 24, 000 in the course of the dynasty
about 1,500 were stationed in the capital where they staffed the six government ministries of a) personnel,
b) revenue,
c) rites,
d) war,
e) justice
f) works.
Ming officials were subjected to regular posting for a long term away from their home province,
this was to avoid conflicts of interest.
their careers were centrally managed
they often alternated service spent in the provinces with assignments in the capital.
all officials were evaluated very three years
those that were deficient were demoted or punished.
there was a censorial system that existed to
a) monitor effectiveness,
b) detect any criminality and incompetence,
c) alert the emperor to the various problems.
the majority of civil officials were assigned to
a) the provincial,
b) prefectural,
c) sub-prefectural
d) districts (or county) offices throughout the Ming territory

to northern and southern areas around Beijing & Nanjing, there were 13 provinces
below the level of provinces, there was a civil government
with it the administration of justice & collection of taxes, were carried out by 158
more than 1,000 district magistrates aided by a much larger number of local functionaries,
these local functionaries lacked civil service degrees.
the territory they administered was about 1.5 million sq. miles – 3.9 sq. km
that is just about half of the area of China today.
a district magistrate would have authority over 60,000 individuals
in the villages the responsibility lay in the hands of the elders and tax captains
they would oversee the delivery of grain and labour service.

The Eunuchs:

one of the flaws or weaknesses of the Ming was the interference of the eunuchs i
this took place in civil and military affairs.
the palace was staffed with eunuchs
they were the only men allowed to be in the headquarters of the concubines,
in this way they had access to the attention of the emperors
because of that they were often able to obtain favours.

the eunuchs were ranked and organized according to specialized agencies
these agencies responsible for a variety of services:
a) household chores,
b) dealing with food,
c) clothing,
d) rituals, and
e ) entertainment.

often the eunuchs wee given sensitive assignments
this is when they acted as spies and often where sent to spy on magistrates.
the number of eunuchs increased to about 10,000 in the capital
others were scattered throughout the empire on imperial business
some advanced to high positions in the imperial court
some became dictators in the imperial court.

The Ming Scholar:

the Ming scholar was a member of a tiny and much privileged elite.
the scholar preferred the safety of that study to the dangers of the office at the end.
early in the 17th century, the eminent Chinese painter, art critic, and influential arbiter of good taste, Li Rihua (1565-1635) wrote the following description of the scholar’s study:
“His study will be situated there where the brook twists and turns its way through the hills. In total, the structure will not exceed two or three bays, with an upper story from which to observe the clouds and the mists. All around 100 slender bamboo plants will grow, to welcome the fresh wind and to the south will stand a tall pine tree… to the east will be housed all the Daoist writings and Buddhist sutras and to the west, the Confucian classics. In the centre will be placed a bed and a desk strewn with examples of fine calligraphy and painting.”
this is an idealized description of an almost unattainable space & ritual
it was only years spent in such a study that scholars could best provide for the their families,
some achieved some sort of fame as well

the scholar is often referred to as the literati
this was a terminology of the Jesuits
shi (scholar) or wenren (men of letters) are the Chinese terms.

Literacy, the Essay, and the Examinations:

such opportunities, was severely circumscribed by the luck of wealth and locality,
it involved prodigious feats of memory.
from a very early age, the son of a family that was rich enough would have that opportunity
this was the task of acquiring the very terse and difficult classical language,
when he entered school he was expected to know around 1,500 to 2,000 of these characters.
he would then proceed to the memorization of the various books of the Confucian canon
he would also proceed to the training in the art of composition..
this last skill, revolved around acquiring the mastery of a tightly-defined form of composition, - this is the much maligned “eight-legged” essay (baguwen),
it involved addressing, through a prescribed sequences of stages, the topic given to them.
the process began first with “broaching the topic” and ended with a “conclusion”
this included a series of antithetical statements – “the eight legs”
to master these classical & rhetorical traditions required enormous knowledge
this was knowledge of more than 10,000 Chinese characters
this was a requirement to be allowed to write the exams in the first place.
at the 8th lunar month of every 3rd year, all candidates would gather
this was at various provincial capitals
on the 9th, 12th and 15th days of that month they go to examination cells

the successful candidates – “raised men” – juren - would be allowed to start the next stage
this was the Metropolitan examinations held in the capital, the 2nd month of the next year,
then the student would undergo the rigors of three-day tests.

a successful candidate would be called the “presented scholar” – jinshi
this would give him the privilege of meeting the emperor or his rep and be given a rank.
of the 90 times of the Ming dynasty a sum total of 24, 874 students achieved that status

A Constricted Curriculum:

the Ming scholar had available to him more readily than ever before a wide range of texts, - these were scholarly ones either as a manuscript copy, or increasingly, a wood block imprint,
this was acquired from one of many libraries
these were from private, official, or monasteries - or from the commercial book merchants.- soon enough the actual curriculum became more and more narrowly defined
it began focusing on the commentaries to the Confucian canon
these were developed by the Song dynasty’s neo-Confucian Zhu Xi (1130-1200)
i was believed that this was the key to the wisdom of the sages of old
this wisdom would move society toward universal peace and order - so they thought.

Office and its Dangers:

eligibility for office was everything for the Ming scholar
as long as one maintained one’s registration, one was exempt from
a) tax (money or labour)
b) a variety of sumptuary laws
c) they were also immune from prosecution for various crimes
d) they would immediately become a member of a national elite
the actual salaries were generally low during the Ming,
but office holding could prove to be a profitable venture.
it was the sole acceptable method of social mobility
yet the holding of office had its drawbacks
for example, when the supply exceeded the demand
the bureaucracy at most increased to 24,000 men.
there was intense factionalism at the imperial court during the Ming especially,
so, few men could enjoy a steady career free of anxiety of dismissal and disgrace.
the tasks to be done were quite extraordinary in nature
every job had to be scrutinized, reviewed, and evaluated
for example, the district magistrate was responsible for the well-being of some 90,000 people
this population was spread over an area of1300 sq. miles
his duties consisted of the following:
a) tax collection,
b) supervision of the census,
c) the administration of justice,
d) the undertaking of local rites,
e) the maintenance of the education system &public works of the locale
f) the proper distribution of famine relief.
sometimes it was worst if a scholar was one of the1,500 officials in the capital
this was where the eunuchs & their bodyguards maintained a reign of terror over them
at times the officials were punished through public whippings.

Travels & its Delights:

during the reign of Emperor Wanli, there was much peace
the scholars could afford to turn their attention to
a) painting,
b) calligraphy,
c) collecting and exchange of writings
they also turned their attentions to the despised forms of
a) the vernacular and theatre,
b) the short story,
c) the novel,
d) the opera,
e) arts and crafts
f) engaging in excessive tea-drinking.

by the late period there was a growing tendency for scholars to indulge in travels
this was for its own sake
the delights of travel were obsessively taken up by scholars.
the achievement of the Ming scholars was
a) founding libraries
b) producing anthologies of the preserved numerous written works from extinction.

Foreign Trade:

the beginning of the Ming dynasty brought an end to the “pax mongolica”
this had created long distance trade across the Eurasian landmass.
by the end of this era, China was the centre of maritime commerce.

unlike his Mongol predecessors the Ming founder was not interested in foreign trade
he advocated defence of the northern frontier
he discouraged his people from any maritime contact with other countries
under his rule foreign trade fell to a low point.
the situation began to change in the early 1400s with Emperor Yongle (1402-1420),
having just usurped the throne, he expanded China’s external contacts.
this was for official trade both by land and by sea.

Yongle was anxious to build up Ming military power
to do this he needed horses, which were in short supply in China.
he established “Tea-Horse” Markets along the northern frontier
this is where Inner Asia horses were purchased in exchange for Chinese tea.
the Veritable Record is the most important account of the Ming period,
it contains annual totals for the number of horses acquired,
it rose from just under 40, 000 in 1403 to more than 1.3 million in 1423.
outsiders were made aware of Ming demand for horses both through tribute and trade.
emperor Yongle undertook a quite different trade initiative
he sent a series of great naval expeditions, led by the eunuch Zheng He to the Indian Ocean.
the route to southern Asia was well known to the Chinese traders.
Arabs had conducted maritime commerce with China for centuries.
Zheng He was able to recruit Chinese Muslims who spoke Arabic
they acted as interpreters when he reached the Indian Ocean.
Yongle’s expeditions were strictly for diplomatic purposes.
their official exchanges of gifts can be characterized as “tributary trade”.
there were some items, especially spice, that China could not produce,
it could only be obtained through trade.
these expeditions carried many fine pieces of porcelain, along with other valuables,
they were to be given to the rulers of other states as gifts of the Ming emperor.
dated Ming porcelains were used to decorate the ceilings of the Ardebil Shrine in Safavid Iran.- - other fine pieces can be seen among the treasures of the Ottoman Empire
they are on display in the Topkapi Palace Museum in Istanbul.
it is easy to assume that thee may have been private trade taking place as well.

The Growth of Maritime Trade:

Yongle’s, imperial policy emphasized the exclusion of foreign contact,
but soon the growth of foreign trade was in the private sphere.
despite the lack of imperial enthusiasm, and the ban on seafaring, maritime trade grew
Chinese products were well known overseas and demand was strong
tributary trade was succeeded and it was eclipsed in volume by commercial trade
this was because Ming kilns and merchants tried to satisfy the foreign demand
these demands came from Japan, Southeast Asia, and the Indian Ocean.
by the second half of the 16th century, Western ships, especially Portuguese and Dutch, were carrying ever increasing volume of Chinese porcelains to Europe.
single vessel could carry as much as 70,000 items
it became possible for European customers to order Chinese items to be manufactured with a family coat-of-arms or other Western style decoration.

to purchase Ming goods, Japanese, Portuguese, and Dutch traders brought silver to Chinese ports.
this flow of bullion was substantially increased when, in the second half of the 16th century, the Spanish established a foothold in the Philippines.
the Portuguese and Dutch came to China by sailing around Africa & across the Indian Ocean,
but he Spanish came to Asia by crossing the Pacific
Spanish vessels, laden with silver from the mines of the New World, left Acapulco and crossed the Pacific on favourable winds for Manila.
silver was exchanged with the Chinese merchants from Guangzhou and Fujian province
they were exchanged for everything the Spanish needed to build
the Spanish needed to sustain their new colonial outposts
they needed food, livestock, furniture, tools, and everyday items.
the Manila galleons soon returned to New Spain stuffed with quantities of silks and porcelains
this was for ale in the Americas and trans-shipments to Iberia.

Ming Money:

early in the Ming dynasty, the government issued paper money
this was in denominations equal to strings of copper coins
paper money was convenient for the government
this was because it served to facilitate payments to soldiers and officials in the north
but the notes were not supported and rapidly fell into disuse

small transactions were carried out with copper cash
but the large payments required the use of ingots of silver
these ingots of silver were not coined and were cumbersome.

with China’s commercial economy expanding, demand for silver soared.
from mid-16th century, the Chinese willingness to exchange fine products for silver precipitated a global flow of silver to China
this came directly from Japan and New Spain,
it came indirectly on the Portuguese and Dutch ships from Europe.
inside China, the silver was substituted for taxes in the form of labour services
these services were owed to the government
this greatly facilitated long distance transactions and commerce
the Chinese trading boom had begun and the empire’s prosperity was guaranteed.

Mongol & Japanese Foes:

Ming security was challenged by Mongol troops in the north and by piracy along the coast. -
invasion from the north threatened the dynasty’s existence
coastal incursions cause disruption and economic loss without endangering the empire.
after the fall of the Yuan in 1368, Mongol remnants continued to pose a threat in the north
some strategic positions taken by the Ming garrisons had to be abandoned.
the Ming military defence in the north combined diplomacy with the use of military force. -
tribal leaders were granted titles as head of guard units
they were encouraged to settle in areas along the border as defensive buffers.
at the same time, Ming military outposts were established in strategic areas
they were supported either by part-time farming or transport of daily supplies from the south.-
these elements were not satisfactory
the loyalty of tribal leaders to the Ming ruler was subject to change
soldiers in fixed outposts could not match the mobility of the raiders
this is because the raiders had exceptional horses.
during the founding emperor’s reign, imperial princes joined with the Ming commanders to pursue and harass Mongol leaders.
Zhu Di, the Prince of Yan stationed in Beijing, was the most active in this military task.
in 1302, he usurped the throne and took reign name Yongle.
he subsequently move the capital north to Beijing
he used it as a base from which to lead five major military campaigns into the grasslands.
the largest of these campaigns mobilized half a million men
this included more than 10,000 mounted cavalry & larger numbers of foot soldiers
it also included transport workers.
in 1424, Emperor Yongle was killed in action during the fifth campaign.
subsequent emperors were unable to match Yongle’s military prowess.
one who did try was the ineffectual emperor Yingzong
he was captured and taken prisoner by Mongol forces at Tumu in 1449.
the dynasty was saved when officials installed Yinzong’s brother on the throne
they organized an effective defence of the capital.
they were unable to raise the ransom for the captive emperor
the Mongols then returned him unharmed
Ming defence policy shifted away from campaigning
it shifted to reliance on static walls, fortifications and outposts
the Great Wall was an impressive artifact of this period.

The Increasing Threat of Piracy:

after the mid-14th century, tributary trade declined in importance
this was when he Ming court turned its attention to the defence of the northern border.
coastal and overseas trade continued to grow
it could not be confined within the few ports like Guangzhou and Ningbo
these place were where the government allowed foreign merchants to call.
by the1520s, illegal traders and desperate commoners formed small pirate band
they operated from offshore islands, making raids along the coast.
they were soon joined by growing numbers of Japanese, intent on trade and plunder
this led the Chinese officials to label all the outlaws “Japanese pirates” wokou
this was a derogatory term that might be interpreted as “dwarf bandits”.
in actuality, a majority of those involved were Chinese
they had many connections to wealthy merchant families and local officials.

by 1550s, the level of violence escalated dramatically.
the whole area of the southern coast became a real total war zone,
armed bands raided and plundered cities, and even established fortified bases
the government responded by
a) trying to enforce its prohibition on maritime trade,
b) remove the civilian population from the coast,
c) built its own fortifications
d) raise troops to do battle with the raiders
after a decade of confused and destructive fighting, a degree of order was restored
Ming government policy changed
maritime trading was again permitted along the southern coast.
it was just at this point in time that Western ships began to reach Chinese waters
this was in significant numbers
in 1557, the Portuguese were allowed a permanent trading post
this was on a peninsula at Macao, near Guangzhou
it was a facility they maintained until 1999.
the Spanish took possession of the Philippines in the 1570s
it was there they had come into conflict with Chinese pirates.
they fought the pirates
they pleaded with Ming coastal officials to let them establish a trading post similar to Macao.
when the Dutch appeared on the scene it was as much in the role of pirates as of merchants.
they looted the Chinese ships,
they raided along the coast
in 1622 attacked the Portuguese at Macao
two years later they established a base, Fort Zeelandia, on the island of Taiwan
this was beyond the reach of the Ming authorities
by early 1600s, the Western Pacific was an active venue for
a) international piracy and trader,
b) competition in which the English and Japanese played significant roles.

An Empire in Decline:

the end of the empire came on April 25th 1644
this was one of the most dramatic and cataclysmic dynastic transitions in Chinese history
as the troops of the rebel leader Li Zicheng (1605-1645) entered the outer suburbs of the capital the ill-fated Emperor Chongzhen (1611-1644), (in his 17th year of his reign), took himself to the Imperial Hat and Girdle Department on Coal Hill and hanged himself. The night before he had killed his consorts and injured his daughter, leaving behind a suicide note.
within 6 weeks of his arrival Li Zicheng had withdrawn from the city
he would die in obscure circumstances the next year
his dynasty, Shun, had collapsed and Beijing, in flames, was occupied by another army,
that army was that of the Qing under the command of regent Dorgon (1612-1650).
his first public act, after securing the city, was to ensure and oversee the appropriate burial and respect the memory of the last Ming emperor.

What Went Wrong?

the reverberations of this transition from Ming to Qing lasted for much of the next half century.
various Southern Ming imperial aspirants withdrew further and further southwards, t
those who had chosen to live through the drama (rather than become martyrs) positioned themselves – if only provisionally – along a spectrum of engagement that stretched from armed opposition to retreat from public life to close accommodations with the new Manchu masters of the empire.
the middle years of the Wanli's (1563-1620) reign was the turning point of the end of the Ming.
the late Ming was an age of
1) explosive economic and commercial development,
2) a rapid rise in population (150 to 175 million by end of 15th century
3) increased levels of urbanization.

these changes brought with them increased levels of social mobility and of literacy
these changes also served to unsettle China’s ruling elite
it did this by by undermining existing status relationships
an expanded and commercialized publishing took advantage of this mobility,
the flourishing popular culture showed a willingness to question and undermine existing neo-Confucian orthodoxies.
accompanying such socio-economic challenges were
1) the age-old signs of severe dynastic decline,
2) an incompetent & extravagant emperor uninterested in the administration of his empire,
3) the consequent expansion of eunuch power,
4) intense factionalism and wide-spread corruption among officials,
5) localized natural disasters and food shortages,
6) increased expenditures on a number of wasteful and failed military campaigns,
7) rampant inflation and increasing disparities in wealth.
between 1572 & 1582, daily administration was by Zhang Juzheng (1525-1582),
he was the emperor’s former tutor and current Grand Secretary
he introduced the “Single-whip” method of taxation,
this was a uniform and consolidated form of tax
it was imposed based on detailed knowledge of local circumstances,
it was payable in silver throughout the empire.
It served to improve the efficiency of the imperial bureaucracy
it replenished the emperor’s reserves of grain and bullion.
piecemeal measures imposed on the empire could not server to reform a government system
this system was committed to preserving the agrarian simplicity of a golden Confucian age
it was an age that was long gone
with the death of Zhang Juzheng the empire was incapable of dealing with the threats,
these threats were both internal and external, to its political order
it was these continual threats that eventually overran and destroyed the empire.

The Jesuits in China:

from the 1580s, the Jesuits inaugurated an intercultural conversation or dialogue
this was between East and West that has continued until the present day.
the loyal members of the order of the Society of Jesus was established in 1541
it was founded by by St. Ignatius Loyola
they were dedicated to procuring the advancement of people’s souls
they did this by combining Christian doctrine with secular knowledge.
those Jesuits who ventured eastward were an intellectual elite from throughout Europe,
they were trained in an Aristotelian scholasticism
they were disciplined
they were committed to their mission of converting the Chinese to Catholicism
it was a mission, that involved a two-way exchange of knowledge
they wanted to understand the history, geography, languages, and literatures of the peoples of the East
they wanted to spread this newly found knowledge
they were also intent on making available to the Chinese the best that Europe had to offer.
their mission usually focuses on the labours of one man
this was an Italian Jesuit named Matteo Ricci (1532-1610)

his initial progress toward Beijing where the Wanli Emperor sat, was slow and problematic.
Ricci was stoned, robbed and arrested.
his companions died and his boat was shipwrecked
throughout this Ricci struggled to understand the languages of China.
he did not have available to him the usual tools of grammar an dictionaries
in this respect his success was remarkable
he began his study of Chinese in early 1580
within a year or so he was able to hear confessions in the newly acquired language
by the1590s he had begun to translate the five books of Confucius into Latin
in 1595, he issued his first full composition in Chinese – the Treatise on Friendship.

Communicating Across Cultures:

the textual and linguistic conditions for the work Ricci was engaged in were complex.
the language spoken by the Jesuits in China was Portuguese,
but their letters back home were written into many languages
many of these letters were translated into Latin and circulated widely throughout Europe
these tracts, excerpts, and summaries of these reports were made available to English readers as early as 1625

Cultural Immersion:

the late imperial Chinese world that greeted Ricci was governed by a set of laws
these laws sought to regulated all aspects of consumption – housing, food, clothing.
the commercial revolution of the times had served to loosen the grip on such controls
yet the rules that governed the official robes and accoutrements of the scholar-official continued to be strictly observed
Matteo Ricci accompanied his fellow Jesuit, Michele Ruggieri (1543-1607) to the city of Zhaoqing
this was to establish the first inland mission in 1583,
they were dressed in the robes of a Buddhist monk, having also shaven their hair and faces.
by early 1590s, Ricci had begun to realize the disadvantage of this way of dressing.
Buddhists had little status in educated circles or society
they tended to be treated with contempt by both scholars and officials
by now Buddhism was recovering from a long phase of intellectual and organizational decline
on the advice of a Chinese acquaintance, the Jesuits decided they should dress in robes of the Confucian scholar
he had to first get permission to do this
he appeared in public with this new way of dressing in 1595 – with this, his prestige grew.

he had become a Western Confucian schola
he dressed in a scholar’s robe and produced texts expected of men of high education
by shifting in his dress, he also shifted in his perspective,
he went from being an outsider to becoming an insider
he went from observer to participant – Matteo Ricci had become one of them.

China’s Place in the World:

Matto Ricci had carried with him to China a map of the world
it quickly attracted the attention of Chinese scholars he met
he was always asked for copies of it
Ricci would rewrite them to include Chinese names of places.
in making thee maps Ricci placed China at the centre of the world
he increased its area size to accord it with the traditional view of the empire as being the Middle Kingdom, at least culturally and politically, if not geographically
Ricci realized that for his map to be accepted as true, he had to accommodate the Chinese perspective even though it was scientifically incorrect
this was such as the world being flat and square
his hope was to gain their trust in order to eventually convert them to Christianity.
his scientific toolkit wad a sideline to his particular mission
it was designed to impress and interest people
this was done rather than to communicate the truths about the shape and state of the world.

The Acceptance of Christianity:

the Jesuits sought to perpetrate their own understanding of religious circumstances of China.
Ricci dismissed both Daoism and Chinese Buddhism as irrelevant
he argued that the Chinese believed a “natural religion”
he believed that was very much in keeping with Christianity.
as Ricci said: “ Of all the pagan sects known in Europe, I know of no people who fall into fewer errors in the early ages of their antiquity than did their Chinese. From the very beginning of their history it is recorded in their writings that they recognized and worshipped one supreme being, whom they called the King of Heaven … One can definitely hope that in the eyes and mercy of God, many of the ancient Chinese found salvation in the natural law.”
for Ricci, the Chinese had been Christians all along, without realizing it.
it appeared that beliefs, expressed in Confucianism, were presented by the Jesuits as being essentially secularist.

this argument led to the Jesuits ‘s greatest and significant aspect of accommodations
this was the use of pre-existing Chinese terminology for their Christian concepts
for the Jesuits, the Chinese could continue to undertake their own rites and rituals
these were those associated with ancestor worship
and they could become Christians at the same time.
the Catholicism they brought to China was transformed by its Chinese circumstances.
in this respect, there exists an extraordinary historical irony in the fact that after the Kangxi emperor declared in 1692, that Christianity was no longer to be listed as a ruinous doctrine, a series of Papal Bulls of 1704, 1707, 1715, & 1742 condemned what it now labeled the “Chinese Rites” and banned any further accommodations of the type that Ricci had undertaken, a decision reversed in 1939.

Ricci’s Death in Beijing:

Matteo Ricci did not live to either celebrate the victory or to suffer the defeat of his efforts. A
the time of his death, the estimated number of Chinese Catholics stood at around 2,500
they had grown to about 200,000 in 1700.
as a token of favour, Ricci was buried just beyond the inner walls of Beijing
this was an an order that had been granted to him by the emperor.